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  • Eagle

    Eagle is the common name for the golden eagle, bald eagle, and other birds of prey in the family of the Accipitridae. Eagles belong to several groups of genera, some of which are closely related. True eagles comprise the genus Aquila. Most of the 68 species of eagles are from Eurasia and Africa.[1] Outside this area, just 14 species can be found—two in North America, nine in Central and South America, and three in Australia.

    Eagles are not a natural group but denote essentially any kind of bird of prey large enough to hunt sizeable (about 50 cm long or more overall) vertebrates.

    Etymology

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    The word “eagle” is borrowed into English from Anglo-Norman: eagle and Middle French: aigle, both derived ultimately from Latin: aquila (“eagle”). It is cognate with terms such as French: aigle, Portuguese: águia and Spanish: águila.[2] It is broadly synonymous with the less common English term “erne” or “earn”, deriving from Middle English: ern, from Old English: earn, in which it acts as the usual word for the bird. The Old English term is turn derived from Proto-Germanic: *arnaz and is cognate with other synonymous words in Germanic languages such as Swedish: örn, German: Aar and Gothic: ara. Through the Proto-Indo-European root, it is further related to words such as ὄρνις (“bird”) and Lithuanian: erelis (“eagle”). Although “erne” can be used to refer to any eagle, it is most commonly used for the golden eagle or sea-eagle.[3][4]

    Description

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    Eagles are large, powerfully-built birds of prey, with heavy heads and beaks. Even the smallest eagles, such as the booted eagle (Hieraaetus pennatus), which is comparable in size to a common buzzard (Buteo buteo) or red-tailed hawk (B. jamaicensis), have relatively longer and more evenly broad wings, and more direct, faster flight, despite the reduced size of their aerodynamic feathers. Most eagles are larger than any other raptors, apart from some vultures. The smallest species of eagle is the Great Nicobar serpent eagle (Spilornis klossi), at 450 g (1 lb) and 40 cm (16 in). The largest species are discussed below. Like all birds of prey, eagles have very large hooked beaks for ripping flesh from their prey, strong, muscular legs, and powerful talons.

    The beak is typically heavier than that of most other birds of prey. Eagles’ eyes are extremely powerful. It is estimated that the wedge-tailed eagle has a visual acuity twice that of a typical human.[5][6][7] This acuity enables eagles to spot potential prey from a very long distance. This keen eyesight is primarily attributed to their extremely large pupils which ensure minimal diffraction (scattering) of the incoming light. Like most diurnal raptors, eagles have little ability to see ultraviolet light.[8] The female of all known species of eagles is larger than the male.[9][10]

    Eagles normally build their nests, called eyries, in tall trees or on high cliffs. Many species lay two eggs, but the older, larger chick frequently kills its younger sibling once it has hatched. The parents take no action to stop the killing.[11][12] It is said[by whom?] that eagles fly above clouds but this is not true.[citation needed] Eagles fly during storms and glide from the wind’s pressure. This saves the bird’s energy. Due to the size and power of many eagle species, they are ranked at the top of the food chain as apex predators in the avian world. The type of prey varies by genus. The Haliaeetus and Icthyophaga eagles prefer to capture fish, though the species in the former often capture various animals, especially other water birds, and are powerful kleptoparasites of other birds. The snake and serpent eagles of the genera Circaetus, Terathopius, and Spilornis predominantly prey on the great diversity of snakes found in the tropics of Africa and Asia. The eagles of the genus Aquila are often the top birds of prey in open habitats, taking almost any medium-sized vertebrate they can catch. Where Aquila eagles are absent, other eagles, such as the buteonine black-chested buzzard-eagle of South America, may assume the position of top raptorial predator in open areas. Many other eagles, including the species-rich genus Spizaetus, live predominantly in woodlands and forests. These eagles often target various arboreal or ground-dwelling mammals and birds, which are often unsuspectingly ambushed in such dense, knotty environments. Hunting techniques differ among the species and genera, with some individual eagles having engaged in quite varied techniques based on their environment and prey at any given time. Most eagles grab prey without landing and take flight with it, so the prey can be carried to a perch and torn apart.[13]

    The bald eagle is noted for having flown with the heaviest load verified to be carried by any flying bird, since one eagle flew with a 6.8 kg (15 lb) mule deer fawn.[14][15] However, a few eagles may target prey considerably heavier than themselves; such prey is too heavy to fly with, thus it is either eaten at the site of the kill or taken in pieces back to a perch or nest. Golden and crowned eagles have killed ungulates weighing up to 30 kg (66 lb) and a martial eagle even killed a 37 kg (82 lb) duiker, 7–8 times heavier than the preying eagle.[13][16] Authors on birds David Allen Sibley, Pete Dunne, and Clay Sutton described the behavioral difference between hunting eagles and other birds of prey thus (in this case the bald and golden eagles as compared to other North American raptors):[17]

    An Eagle named in honor of Abraham Lincoln and was the mascot of 8th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment, at the time of the U.S. Centennial

    They have at least one singular characteristic. It has been observed that most birds of prey look back over their shoulders before striking prey (or shortly thereafter); predation is after all a two-edged sword. All hawks seem to have this habit, from the smallest kestrel to the largest Ferruginous – but not the Eagles.

    Among the eagles are some of the largest birds of prey: only the condors and some of the Old World vultures are markedly larger. It is regularly debated[according to whom?] which should be considered the largest species of eagle. They could be measured variously in total length, body mass, or wingspan. Different lifestyle needs among various eagles result in variable measurements from species to species. For example, many forest-dwelling eagles, including the very large harpy eagle, have relatively short wingspans, a feature necessary for being able to maneuver in quick, short bursts through densely forested habitats.[13] Eagles in the genus Aquila, found almost exclusively in open country, are noted for their ability to soar, and have relatively long wings for their size.[13]

    These lists of the top five eagles are based on weight, length, and wingspan, respectively. Unless otherwise noted by reference, the figures listed are the median reported for each measurement in the guide Raptors of the World[18] in which only measurements that could be personally verified by the authors were listed.[13]

    RankCommon nameScientific nameBody mass
    1Philippine eaglePithecophaga jefferyi8.3 kg (18+1⁄4 lb) (Average Weight)
    2Steller’s sea eagleHaliaeetus pelagicus7.4 kg (16+1⁄4 lb) (Average Weight)
    3Harpy eagleHarpia harpyja6.35 kg (14 lb) (Average Weight)
    4White-tailed eagleHaliaeetus albicilla4.8 kg (10+1⁄2 lb) (Average Weight) [19]
    5Martial eaglePolemaetus bellicosus4.6 kg (10+1⁄4 lb)[19] (Average Weight)
    RankCommon nameScientific nameTotal length
    1Philippine eaglePithecophaga jefferyi100 cm (3 ft 3 in)[20]
    2Harpy eagleHarpia harpyja98.5 cm (3 ft 3 in)
    3Wedge-tailed eagleAquila audax95.5 cm (3 ft 2 in)
    4Steller’s sea eagleHaliaeetus pelagicus95 cm (3 ft 1 in)
    5Crowned eagleStephanoaetus coronatus87.5 cm (2 ft 10 in)
    RankCommon nameScientific nameMedian wingspan
    1White-tailed eagleHaliaeetus albicilla218.5 cm (7 ft 2 in)
    2Steller’s sea eagleHaliaeetus pelagicus212.5 cm (7 ft 0 in)
    3Wedge-tailed eagleAquila audax210 cm (6 ft 11 in)[21][22]
    4Golden eagleAquila chrysaetos207 cm (6 ft 9 in)
    5Martial eaglePolemaetus bellicosus206.5 cm (6 ft 9 in)

    In northwestern Chihuahua, Mexico, the Golden Eagle’s diet during the breeding seasons (2014–2016) predominantly consisted of black-tailed jackrabbits (Lepus californicus), accounting for approximately 72% of prey items and around 86% of total biomass consumed.[23]

    Habitat

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    The eagles are generally distributed in all types of habitats and nearly all parts of the world. The birds can be found in northern tundra to tropical rainforests and deserts. In North America, bald eagles and golden eagles are very common.

    Distribution

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    Groups

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    Eagles are often informally divided into four groups.[a][26]

    The snake eagles are placed in the subfamily Circaetinae. The fish eagles, booted eagles, and harpy eagles have traditionally been placed in the subfamily Buteoninae together with the buzzard-hawks (buteonine hawks) and harriers. Some authors may treat these groups as tribes of the Buteoninae; Lerner & Mindell[27] proposed separating the eagle groups into their own subfamilies of Accipitridae.

    Fish eagles

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    Sea eagles or fish eagles take fish as a large part of their diets, either fresh or as carrion.

    Proposed subfamily Haliaeetinae. Genera: Haliaeetus, Icthyophaga.

    Some authors include Gypohierax angolensis, the “vulturine fish eagle” (also called the palm-nut vulture) in this group.[26] However, genetic analyses indicate it is related to a grouping of Neophron–Gypaetus–Eutriorchis (Egyptian vulture, bearded vulture (lammergeier), and Madagascar serpent eagle).[28]

    The fish eagles have a close genetic relationship with Haliastur and Milvus; the whole group is only distantly related to the Buteo group.[28]

    Fish eagles exist in every continent throughout the world, except for South America.[29]

    Although fish eagles can be found in many different places around the world, they have been classified as “Near Threatened”. Reasons such as overfishing, pollution, habitat destruction, and the use of pesticides have contributed to the species’ rapid population drop.[30]

    Booted eagles

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    The booted eagle is a group of eagle that typically migrates across the Sahara Desert to Europe. It usually reaches Europe around the beginning of March and leaves by the end of September. It’s interesting to note that these types of eagles usually mate with the same partner and return to the same areas years later. Female booted eagles usually lay 1-4 eggs, which promptly hatch after 37 to 40 days. Researchers estimate that there are between 3600 and 6900 pairs of booted eagles in Europe, which are mostly situated in the Iberian Peninsula.[31]

    For the species Hieraaetus pennatus (Aquila pennata), see booted eagle.

    Main article: Booted eagles

    Booted eagle in flight

    Booted eagles or “true eagles”[26][32] have feathered tarsi (lower legs).

    Tribe Aquililae or proposed subfamily Aquilinae. Genera: Aquila, Hieraaetus; Spizaetus, Oroaetus, Spizastur; Nisaetus;[28] Ictinaetus, Lophoaetus; Polemaetus; and Stephanoaetus.[26][32]

    See comments under eagle species for changes to the composition of these genera.

    Snake eagles

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    Most snake or serpent eagles, as the name suggests, primarily prey on snakes.

    • Subfamily Circaetinae. Genera: Circaetus, Spilornis, Dryotriorchis, Terathopius.[26]
    • Eutriorchis (subfamily Gypaetinae or Circaetinae).

    Despite filling the niche of a snake eagle, genetic studies suggest that the Madagascar serpent eagle (Eutriorchis) is not related to them.[28]

    Over several decades, a great deal of research has been done on the  Snake-eagle’s diet, which is mainly made up of reptiles, especially snakes. When it comes to catching snakes, it is generally accepted that the bird exhibits generalist feeding behavior, which means it does not hunt down specific types of snakes but rather feeds on them depending on their availability in the wild.[33]

    Harpy eagles

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    Harpy eagles[26] or “giant forest eagles”[25] are large eagles that inhabit tropical forests. The group contains two to six species, depending on the author. Although these birds occupy similar niches and have traditionally been grouped, they are not all related: the solitary eagles are related to the black hawks and the Philippine eagle to the snake eagles.

    Species

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    Martial eagle in Namibia
    Philippine eagle (Pithecophaga jefferyi) in Southern Philippines
    Wedge-tailed eagle in Australia
    Eastern imperial eagle in Israel

    Major new research into eagle taxonomy suggests that the important genera Aquila and Hieraaetus are not composed of nearest relatives, and it is likely that a reclassification of these genera will soon take place, with some species being moved to Lophaetus or Ictinaetus.[27]

    Family Accipitridae

    Main article: Accipitridae

    Short-toed snake eagle in flight

    In culture

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    Eagles, a Chinese Ming period painting; Located at the National Palace Museum

    Etymology

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    The modern English term for the bird is derived from Latin: aquila by way of French: aigle. The origin of aquila is unknown, but it is believed to possibly derive from aquilus (meaning dark-colored, swarthy, or blackish) as a reference to the plumage of eagles.

    Old English used the term earn, related to Scandinavia’s ørn/örn. It is similar to other Indo-European terms for “bird” or “eagle”, including Greek: ὄρνις (ornís), Russian: орёл (orël), and Welsh: eryr.

    In the southern part of Finland, near the Gulf of Finland, is the town of Kotka, which literally means “eagle”, while the town of L’Aquila in the central part of Italy literally means “the eagle”.

    The sculpture of eagle at the top of the fountain at Plac Orła Białego in Szczecin, Poland

    In Britain before 1678, eagle referred specifically to the golden eagle, with the other native species, the white-tailed eagle, being known as erne. The modern name “golden eagle” for aquila chrysaetos was introduced by the naturalist John Ray.[34]

    The village of Eagle in Lincolnshire, England, has nothing to do with the bird; its name is derived from the Old English words for “oak” and “wood” (compare Oakley).[35]

    Religion and spirituality

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    Representation of an eagle at Rio Carnival, 2014
    Garuda, the vahana (mount) of Vishnu, depicted with an eagle’s beak and wings

    In the ancient Sumerian mythology, the mythical king Etana was said to have been carried into heaven by an eagle.[36] Classical writers such as Lucan and Pliny the Elder claimed that the eagle was able to look directly at the sun, and that they forced their fledglings to do the same. Those that blinked would be cast from the nest. This belief persisted until the Medieval era.[37]

    The eagle is the patron animal of the ancient Greek god Zeus. In particular, Zeus was said to have taken the form of an eagle in order to abduct Ganymede, and there are numerous artistic depictions of the eagle Zeus bearing Ganymede aloft, from Classical times up to the present (see illustrations in the Ganymede (mythology) page.)[38]

    Eagles appear metaphorically in many translations of the Old Testament. God is spoken of as carrying Israel on “eagles’ wings” in Exodus 19:4, Isaiah 40:31 compares those who wait on the Lord to flying eagles, and Psalm 103 mentions renewing one’s youth “as the eagle”. In explaining this rejuvenation, Augustine of Hippo says in his commentary on the Psalms that eagles’ beaks overgrow as they age and that they break them against rocks to restore them.[39] The translation, however, is uncertain: the word in the Hebrew, נשר, can also be translated vulture,[40] and is listed alongside specific kinds of vulture in Leviticus‘ discussion of unclean animals.

    The eagle is also often used in Christian iconography to represent the Gospel of John,[41] and eagle-shaped lecterns are common in Anglican and some Roman Catholic churches.[42] The eagle was believed to be able to look directly into the sun in the same way that the Gospel of John looks directly at Jesus’ divinity, and the great distances the eagle flies represent the spread of the gospel to the ends of the earth.

    The United States eagle feather law stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain eagle feathers for religious or spiritual reasons.[43] In Canada, the poaching of eagle feathers for the booming U.S. market has sometimes resulted in the arrests of First Nations person for the crime.[44]

    The Moche people of ancient Peru worshiped the eagle and often depicted eagles in their art.[45] The golden eagle was sacred to the Aztec god Huitzilopochtli while the harpy eagle was sacred to Quetzalcoatl.[46]

    Heraldry

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    Main article: Eagle (heraldry)

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    Coat of arms of Austria.

    Coat of arms of Kotka, Finland

    Coat of arms of the United States

    Eagles are an exceptionally common symbol in heraldry, being considered the “King of Birds” in contrast to the lion, the “King of Beasts”. Whereas the lion (e.g. England) usually represents authority, the eagle is the symbol of power. They are particularly popular in Germanic countries such as Austria, due to their association with the Holy Roman Empire. The eagle of the Holy Roman Empire was two-headed, supposedly representing the two divisions, East and West, of the old Roman Empire. This motif, derived from the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire was also adopted by the Russian Empire and is still featured in the Flag of Albania. The Roman eagle was preceded by the eagle of Ptolemaic Egypt and the Achaemenid Empire. In the coat of arms of Kotka, Finland, the eagle is depicted carrying an anchor and the caduceus on its feet.

    Heraldic eagles are most often found displayed, i.e. with their wings and legs extended. They can also occur close, i.e. with their wings folded, or rising, i.e. about to take flight. The heads, wings, and legs of eagles can also be found independently.

    Eagles symbolize strength, courage, and independence and are commonly found in the heraldry of many nations across the world. Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Dagestan, Egypt, Germany, Ghana, Indonesia, Iraq, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Montenegro, Nigeria, Philippines, Poland, Palestine, Panama, Russia, Romania, Serbia, South Sudan, Somaliland, the United States of America, Yemen, Zambia, and Zimbabwe are the nations whose coats of arms feature an eagle. The eagle’s continuing significance and worldwide appeal as a forceful symbol in national identity and imagery is demonstrated by its widespread usage.[47]

  •  Kite

    A kite is a tethered heavier-than-air or lighter-than-air craft with wing surfaces that react against the air to create lift and drag forces.[2] A kite consists of wings, tethers and anchors. Kites often have a bridle and tail to guide the face of the kite so the wind can lift it.[3] Some kite designs do not need a bridle; box kites can have a single attachment point. A kite may have fixed or moving anchors that can balance the kite. The name is derived from the kite, the hovering bird of prey.[4]

    There are several shapes of kites.

    The lift that sustains the kite in flight is generated when air moves around the kite’s surface, producing low pressure above and high pressure below the wings.[5] The interaction with the wind also generates horizontal drag along the direction of the wind. The resultant force vector from the lift and drag force components is opposed by the tension of one or more of the lines or tethers to which the kite is attached.[6] The anchor point of the kite line may be static or moving (e.g., the towing of a kite by a running person, boat, free-falling anchors as in paragliders and fugitive parakites[7][8] or vehicle).[9][10]

    The same principles of fluid flow apply in liquids, so kites can be used in underwater currents.[11][12] Paravanes and otter boards operate underwater on an analogous principle.

    Man-lifting kites were made for reconnaissance, entertainment and during development of the first practical aircraft, the biplane.

    Kites have a long and varied history and many different types are flown individually and at festivals worldwide. Kites may be flown for recreation, art or other practical uses. Sport kites can be flown in aerial ballet, sometimes as part of a competition. Power kites are multi-line steerable kites designed to generate large forces which can be used to power activities such as kite surfing, kite landboarding, kite buggying and snow kiting.

    History

    [edit]

    Woodcut print of a kite from John Bate’s 1635 book The Mysteries of Nature and Art in which the kite is titled How to make fire Drakes

    Kites were invented in Asia, though their exact origin can only be speculated. The oldest depiction of a kite is from a Mesolithic period cave painting in Muna island, southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia, which has been dated from 9500–9000 years B.C.[13] It depicts a type of kite called kaghati, which are still used by modern Muna people.[14] The kite is made from kolope (forest tuber) leaf for the mainsail, bamboo skin as the frame, and twisted forest pineapple fiber as rope, though modern kites use string.[15][16]

    In China, the kite has been claimed as the invention of the 5th-century BC Chinese philosophers Mozi (also Mo Di, or Mo Ti) and Lu Ban (also Gongshu Ban, or Kungshu Phan). Materials ideal for kite building were readily available including silk fabric for sail material; fine, high-tensile-strength silk for flying line; and resilient bamboo for a strong, lightweight framework. By 549 AD, paper kites were certainly being flown, as it was recorded that in that year a paper kite was used as a message for a rescue mission. Ancient and medieval Chinese sources describe kites being used for measuring distances, testing the wind, lifting men, signaling, and communication for military operations. The earliest known Chinese kites were flat (not bowed) and often rectangular. Later, tailless kites incorporated a stabilizing bowline. Kites were decorated with mythological motifs and legendary figures; some were fitted with strings and whistles to make musical sounds while flying.[17][18][19]

    Kite Flying by Suzuki Harunobu, 1766 (Metropolitan Museum of Art)

    After its introduction into India, the kite further evolved into the fighter kite, known as the patang in India, where thousands are flown every year on festivals such as Makar Sankranti.[20]

    Kites were known throughout Polynesia, as far as New Zealand, with the assumption being that the knowledge diffused from China along with the people. Anthropomorphic kites made from cloth and wood were used in religious ceremonies to send prayers to the gods.[21] Polynesian kite traditions are used by anthropologists to get an idea of early “primitive” Asian traditions that are believed to have at one time existed in Asia.[22]

    Kites were late to arrive in Europe, although windsock-like banners were known and used by the Romans. Stories of kites were first brought to Europe by Marco Polo towards the end of the 13th century, and kites were brought back by sailors from Japan and Malaysia in the 16th and 17th centuries.[23][24] Konrad Kyeser described dragon kites in Bellifortis about 1400 AD.[25] Although kites were initially regarded as mere curiosities, by the 18th and 19th centuries they were being used as vehicles for scientific research.[23]

    Boys flying a kite. Engraving published in Germany in 1828 by Johann Michael Voltz

    In 1752, Benjamin Franklin published an account of a kite experiment to prove that lightning was caused by electricity.

    Kites were also instrumental in the research of the Wright brothers, and others, as they developed the first airplane in the late 1800s. Several different designs of man-lifting kites were developed. The period from 1860 to about 1910 became the European “golden age of kiting”.[26]

    In the 20th century, many new kite designs are developed. These included Eddy‘s tailless diamond, the tetrahedral kite, the Rogallo wing, the sled kite, the parafoil, and power kites.[27] Kites were used for scientific purposes, especially in meteorology, aeronautics, wireless communications and photography. The Rogallo wing was adapted for stunt kites and hang gliding and the parafoil was adapted for parachuting and paragliding.

    The rapid development of mechanically powered aircraft diminished interest in kites. World War II saw a limited use of kites for military purposes (survival radio, Focke Achgelis Fa 330, military radio antenna kites).

    Kites are now mostly used for recreation. Lightweight synthetic materials (ripstop nylon, plastic film, carbon fiber tube and rod) are used for kite making. Synthetic rope and cord (nylon, polyethylene, kevlar and dyneema) are used as bridle and kite line.

    Materials

    [edit]

    Sparless styrofoam kites

    Designs often emulate flying insects, birds, and other beasts, both real and mythical. The finest Chinese kites are made from split bamboo (usually golden bamboo), covered with silk, and hand painted. On larger kites, clever hinges and latches allow the kite to be disassembled and compactly folded for storage or transport. Cheaper mass-produced kites are often made from printed polyester rather than silk.

    Tails are used for some single-line kite designs to keep the kite’s nose pointing into the wind. Spinners and spinsocks can be attached to the flying line for visual effect. There are rotating wind socks which spin like a turbine. On large display kites these tails, spinners and spinsocks can be 50 feet (15 m) long or more.

    Modern aerobatic kites use two or four lines to allow fine control of the kite’s angle to the wind. Traction kites may have an additional line to de-power the kite and quick-release mechanisms to disengage flyer and kite in an emergency.

    Practical uses

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    Main article: Kite applications

    Kites have been used for human flight, military applications, science and meteorology, photography, lifting radio antennas, generating power, aerodynamics experiments, and much more.

    Military applications

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    Kites have been used for military purposes in the past, such as signaling, delivery of ammunition, and for observation, both by lifting an observer above the field of battle and by using kite aerial photography.

    Kites were first used in warfare by the Chinese.[28] During the Song dynasty the Fire Crow, a kite carrying incendiary powder, a fuse, and a burning stick of incense was developed as a weapon.[29]

    According to Samguk Sagi, in 647 Kim Yu-sin, a Korean general of Silla rallied his troops to defeat rebels by using flaming kites which also frightened the enemy.[30]

    Russian chronicles mention Prince Oleg of Novgorod use of kites during the siege of Constantinople in 906: “and he crafted horses and men of paper, armed and gilded, and lifted them into the air over the city; the Greeks saw them and feared them”.[31]

    Walter de Milemete‘s 1326 De nobilitatibus, sapientiis, et prudentiis regum treatise depicts a group of knights flying kite laden with a black-powder filled firebomb over the wall of city.[32]

    Kites were also used by Admiral Yi of the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) of Korea. During the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), Admiral Yi commanded his navy using kites. His kites had specific markings directing his fleet to perform various orders.[33]

    One of Cody’s “manlifter” kites in 1908

    In the modern era the British Army used kites to haul human lookouts into the air for observation purposes, using the kites developed by Samuel Franklin Cody. Barrage kites were used to protect shipping during the Second World War.[34][35] Kites were also used for anti-aircraft target practice.[36] Kites and kytoons were used for lofting communications antenna.[37] Submarines lofted observers in rotary kites.[38]

    Palestinians from the Gaza Strip have flown firebomb kites over the Israel–Gaza barrier, setting fires on the Israeli side of the border,[39][40][41][42] hundreds of dunams of Israeli crop fields were burned by firebomb kites launched from Gaza, with an estimated economic loss of several millions of shekels.[43]

    Science and meteorology

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    Kites have been used for scientific purposes, such as Benjamin Franklin‘s famous experiment proving that lightning is electricity. Kites were the precursors to the traditional aircraft, and were instrumental in the development of early flying craft. Alexander Graham Bell experimented with very large man-lifting kites, as did the Wright brothers and Lawrence Hargrave. Kites had a historical role in lifting scientific instruments to measure atmospheric conditions for weather forecasting. Francis Ronalds and William Radcliffe Birt described a very stable kite at Kew Observatory as early as 1847 that was trialled for the purpose of supporting self-registering meteorological instruments at height.[44]

    Radio aerials and light beacons

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    Kites can be used for radio purposes, by kites carrying antennas for MF, LF or VLF-transmitters. This method was used for the reception station of the first transatlantic transmission by Marconi. Captive balloons may be more convenient for such experiments, because kite-carried antennas require a lot of wind, which may be not always possible with heavy equipment and a ground conductor. It must be taken into account during experiments, that a conductor carried by a kite can lead to high voltage toward ground, which can endanger people and equipment, if suitable precautions (grounding through resistors or a parallel resonant circuit tuned to transmission frequency) are not taken.

    Kites can be used to carry light effects such as lightsticks or battery powered lights.

    Kite traction

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    A quad-line traction kite, commonly used as a power source for kite surfing

    Kites can be used to pull people and vehicles downwind. Efficient foil-type kites such as power kites can also be used to sail upwind under the same principles as used by other sailing craft, provided that lateral forces on the ground or in the water are redirected as with the keels, center boards, wheels and ice blades of traditional sailing craft. In the last two decades several kite sailing sports have become popular, such as kite buggying, kite land boarding, kite boating and kite surfing. Snow kiting has also become popular in recent years.

    Kite sailing opens several possibilities not available in traditional sailing:

    • Wind speeds are greater at higher altitudes
    • Kites may be maneuvered dynamically which increases the force available dramatically
    • There is no need for mechanical structures to withstand bending forces; vehicles or hulls can be very light or dispensed with all together

    Electricity generation

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    Computer-controlled kites can serve as a method of electricity generation when windmills are impractical. Several companies have introduced self-contained crates and shipping containers that provide an alternative to gas-powered generators for remote locations. Such systems use a combination of autonomous, self-launching kites for generation and batteries to store excess power for when winds are low or when otherwise draw exceeds supply. Some designs are tethered to long lines to reach high altitude winds which are always present, even when ground level winds are unavailable or insufficient.[45][46][47][48][49]

    Underwater kites

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    Underwater kites are now being developed to harvest renewable power from the flow of water.[50][51]

    • A kite was used in minesweeping operations from the First World War: this was a foil “attached to a sweep-wire submerging it to the requisite depth when it is towed over a minefield” (OED, 2021). See also paravane.

    Cultural uses

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    Kite festivals are a popular form of entertainment throughout the world. They include large local events, traditional festivals which have been held for hundreds[clarification needed] of years and major international festivals which bring in kite flyers from other countries to display their unique art kites and demonstrate the latest technical kites.

    Many countries have kite museums.[52] These museums may have a focus on historical kites, preserving the country’s kite traditions.

    Asia

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    Kite maker from India, image from Travels in India, including Sinde and the Punjab by H. E. Lloyd, 1845

    Kite flying is popular in many Asian countries, where it often takes the form of “kite fighting“, in which participants try to snag each other’s kites or cut other kites down.[53] Fighter kites are usually small, flattened diamond-shaped kites made of paper and bamboo. Tails are not used on fighter kites so that agility and maneuverability are not compromised.

    Boy flying kite in outskirts of Kathmandu Valley

    In Afghanistan, kite flying is a popular game, and is known in Dari as Gudiparan Bazi. Some kite fighters pass their strings through a mixture of ground glass powder and glue, which is legal. The resulting strings are very abrasive and can sever the competitor’s strings more easily. The abrasive strings can also injure people. During the Taliban rule in Afghanistan, kite flying was banned, among various other recreations.

    In Pakistan, kite flying is often known as Gudi-Bazi or Patang-bazi. Although kite flying is a popular ritual for the celebration of spring festival known as Jashn-e-Baharaan (lit. Spring Festival) or Basant, kites are flown throughout the year. Kite fighting is a very popular pastime all around Pakistan, but mostly in urban centers across the country (especially Lahore). The kite fights are at their highest during the spring celebrations and the fighters enjoy competing with rivals to cut-loose the string of the others kite, popularly known as “Paecha”. During the spring festival, kite flying competitions are held across the country and the skies are colored with kites. When a competitor succeeds in cutting another’s kite loose, shouts of ‘wo kata’ ring through the air. Cut kites are reclaimed by chasing after them. This is a popular ritual, especially among the country’s youth, and is depicted in the 2007 film The Kite Runner (although that story is based in neighboring Afghanistan). Kites and strings are a big business in the country and several different types of string are used, including glass-coated, metal, and tandi. Kite flying was banned in Punjab, India due to more than one motorcyclist death caused by glass-coated or metal kite strings.[54] Kup, Patang, Guda, and Nakhlaoo are some of the popular kite brands; they vary in balance, weight and speed.

    In Indonesia kites are flown as both sport and recreation. One of the most popular kite variants is from Bali. Balinese kites are unique and they have different designs and forms; birds, butterflies, dragons, ships, etc. In Vietnam, kites are flown without tails. Instead small flutes are attached allowing the wind to “hum” a musical tune. There are other forms of sound-making kites. In Bali, large bows are attached to the front of the kites to make a deep throbbing vibration, and in Malaysia, a row of gourds with sound-slots are used to create a whistle as the kite flies. Malaysia is also home to the Kite Museum in Malacca.[55]

    Kite are also popular in Nepal, especially in hilly areas and among the Pahadi and Newar communities, although people also fly kites in Terai areas. Unlike India, people in Nepal fly kites in August – September period and is more popular in time of Dashain.[56]

    Kites are very popular in India, with the states of Gujarat, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab notable for their kite fighting festivals. Highly maneuverable single-string paper and bamboo kites are flown from the rooftops while using line friction in an attempt to cut each other’s kite lines, either by letting the cutting line loose at high speed or by pulling the line in a fast and repeated manner. During the Indian spring festival of Makar Sankranti, near the middle of January, millions of people fly kites all over northern India. Kite flying in Hyderabad starts a month before this, but kite flying/fighting is an important part of other celebrations, including Republic Day, Independence Day, Raksha Bandhan, Viswakarma Puja day in late September and Janmashtami. An international kite festival is held every year before Uttarayan for three days in Vadodara, Surat and Ahmedabad.

    Kites have been flown in China since ancient times. Weifang is home to the largest kite museum in the world.[57][58] It also hosts an annual international kite festival on the large salt flats south of the city. There are several kite museums in Japan, UK, Malaysia, Indonesia, Taiwan, Thailand and the USA. In the pre-modern period, Malays in Singapore used kites for fishing.[59]

    In Japan, kite flying is traditionally a children’s play in New Year holidays and in the Boys’ Festival in May. In some areas, there is a tradition to celebrate a new boy baby with a new kite (祝い凧). There are many kite festivals throughout Japan. The most famous one is “Yōkaichi Giant Kite Festival” in Higashiōmi, Shiga, which started in 1841.[60] The largest kite ever built in the festival is 62 feet (19 m) wide by 67 feet (20 m) high and weighs 3,307 pounds (1,500 kg).[61] In the Hamamatsu Kite Festival in Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, more than 100 kites are flown in the sky over the Nakatajima Sand Dunes, one of the three largest sand dunes in Japan, which overlooks the Enshunada Sea.[62] Parents who have a new baby prepare a new kite with their baby’s name and fly it in the festival.[63] These kites are traditional ones made from bamboo and paper.

    • Making a traditional Wau jala budi kite in Malaysia. The bamboo frame is covered with plain paper and then decorated with multiple layers of shaped paper and foil.
    • Various Balinese kites is on display in front of a store in Ubud, Bali, Indonesia
    • A kite shop in Lucknow, India
    • Traditional Japanese kites
    • Different kites are sold at a shop in Hội An, Vietnam

    Europe

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    Bermuda kite

    In Greece and Cyprus, flying kites is a tradition for Clean Monday, the first day of Lent. In the British Overseas Territory of Bermuda, traditional Bermuda kites are made and flown at Easter, to symbolise Christ’s ascent. In Fuerteventura a kite festival is usually held on the weekend nearest to 8 November lasting for 3 days.

    Polynesia

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    Polynesian traditional kites are sometimes used at ceremonies and variants of traditional kites for amusement. Older pieces are kept in museums. These are treasured by the people of Polynesia.

    • Māori kite
    • Launch of ram-air inflated Peter Lynn single-line kite, shaped like an octopus and 90 feet (27 m) long

    South America

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    A kite in the shape of the flag of Kuwait. The size when flat is 42 by 25 meters (138 ft × 82 ft), 1,050 square meters (11,300 sq ft). While flying it becomes a little smaller (about 900 square meters (9,700 sq ft)) due to curvature of the edges when inflated.

    In Brazil, flying a kite is a very popular leisure activity for children, teenagers and even young adults. Mostly these are boys, and it is overwhelmingly kite fighting a game whose goal is to maneuver their own kites to cut the other persons’ kites’ strings during flight, and followed by kite running where participants race through the streets to take the free-drifting kites. As in other countries with similar traditions, injuries are common and motorcyclists in particular need to take precautions.[64]

    In Chile, kites are very popular, especially during Independence Day festivities (September 18). In Peru, kites are also very popular. There are kite festivals in parks and beaches mostly on August.

    In Colombia, kites can be seen flown in parks and recreation areas during August which is calles as windy. It is during this month that most people, especially the young ones would fly kites.

    In Guyana, kites are flown at Easter, an activity in which all ethnic and religious groups participate. Kites are generally not flown at any other time of year. Kites start appearing in the sky in the weeks leading up to Easter and school children are taken to parks for the activity. It all culminates in a massive airborne celebration on Easter Monday especially in Georgetown, the capital, and other coastal areas. The history of the practice is not entirely clear but given that Easter is a Christian festival, it is said that kite flying is symbolic of the Risen Lord. Moore[65] describes the phenomenon in the 19th century as follows:

    A very popular Creole pastime was the flying of kites. Easter Monday, a public holiday, was the great kite-flying day on the sea wall in Georgetown and on open lands in villages. Young and old alike, male and female, appeared to be seized by kite-flying mania. Easter 1885 serves as a good example. “The appearance of the sky all over Georgetown, but especially towards the Sea Wall, was very striking, the air being thick with kites of all shapes and sizes, covered with gaily coloured paper, all riding bravely on the strong wind.

    — (His quotation is from a letter to The Creole newspaper of December 29, 1858.)

    The exact origins of the practice of kite flying (exclusively) at Easter are unclear. Bridget Brereton and Kevin Yelvington[66] speculate that kite flying was introduced by Chinese indentured immigrants to the then colony of British Guiana in the mid 19th century. The author of an article in the Guyana Chronicle newspaper of May 6, 2007 is more certain:

    Kite flying originated as a Chinese tradition to mark the beginning of spring. However, because the plantation owners were suspicious of the planter class (read “plantation workers”), the Chinese claimed that it represented the resurrection of Jesus Christ. It was a clever argument, as at that time, Christians celebrated Easter to the glory of the risen Christ. The Chinese came to Guyana from 1853–1879.[67]

    World records

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    Chinese dragon kite more than one hundred feet long which flew at the annual Berkeley, California kite festival in 2000

    There are many world records involving kites.[68] The world’s largest kites are inflatable single-line kites. The world record for the largest kite flown for at least 20 minutes is “The Flag of Kuwait”.[69]

    The world record for most kites flown simultaneously was achieved in 2011 when 12,350 kites were flown by children on Al-Waha beach in Gaza Strip.[70]

    The single-kite altitude record is held by a triangular-box delta kite. On 23 September 2014 a team led by Robert Moore, flew a 129 square feet (12 m2) kite to 16,009 feet (4,880 m) above ground level.[71] The record altitude was reached after eight series of attempts over a ten-year period from a remote location in western New South Wales, Australia. The 9.2 feet (3 m) tall and 19.6 feet (6 m) wide Dunton-Taylor delta kite’s flight was controlled by a winch system using 40,682 feet (12,400 m) of ultra high strength Dyneema line. The flight took about eight hours from ground and return. The height was measured with on-board GPS telemetry transmitting positional data in real time to a ground-based computer and also back-up GPS data loggers for later analysis.[72]

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    General safety issues

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    A man flying a kite on the beach, a good location for flying as winds travelling across the sea contain few up or down draughts which cause kites to fly erratically

    There are safety issues involved in kite-flying. Kite lines can strike and tangle on electrical power lines, causing power blackouts and running the risk of electrocuting the kite flier. Wet kite lines or wire can act as a conductor for static electricity and lightning when the weather is stormy. Kites with large surface area or powerful lift can lift kite fliers off the ground or drag them into other objects. In urban areas there is usually a ceiling on how high a kite can be flown, to prevent the kite and line infringing on the airspace of helicopters and light aircraft. It is also possible for fighter kites to kill people, as happened in India when three spectators were killed in separate incidents during Independence Day, August, 2016—precipitating a ban on certain types of enhanced line.

    The government of Egypt banned kite-flying in July 2020, seizing 369 kites in Cairo and 99 in Alexandria, citing both safety and national security concerns.[73]

    Designs

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    [edit]

    • This delta kite has a keel instead of a bridle
    • Giant Japanese kite launched, 2019
    • Train of connected kites
    • Kites fly on top of the Mitsui Store where the craftsmen are working on top of the roof, print by Hokusai
    • Hiroshige II Enshū Akiha (1859)
    • Illustration from the book Story of the mince pie by Josephine Scribner Gates (1916)

    Types

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